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In most cases, a UFD exists for each user on the system. It contains
the names of and pointers to files cataloged in a user's directory.
Chapter 5 contains more information about directory structures.
1.5.4 Subdirectories
A subdirectory is a directory file within another directory or subdirectory file. You can have up to seven levels of subdirectories. Subdirectories let you organize files into meaningful groups. For example, you might have one subdirectory that contains memos and another subdirectory for status reports.
Like a directory, a subdirectory contains names and pointers for the
files cataloged within it. It can contain an entry for another
subdirectory, which can contain an entry for another subdirectory, and
so on to seven levels of subdirectories. This structure (a top-level
directory plus a maximum of seven levels of subdirectories) is called a
hierarchical directory structure.
1.6 OpenVMS Utilities
The following sections provide an overview of some basic OpenVMS
utilities described in this manual.
1.6.1 The Mail Utility
The OpenVMS Mail utility (MAIL) lets you send messages to and receive messages from other users on your system or on any computer that is connected to your system by DECnet software.
Chapter 6 describes how to use Mail.
1.6.2 The OpenVMS Phone Utility
The OpenVMS Phone utility (PHONE) lets you communicate with other users on your system or on any computer that is connected to your system by DECnet software.
Chapter 7 describes how to use Phone.
1.6.3 Text Editors
Text editors allow you to create and modify text files. With
a text editor, you can enter text from a keyboard and modify the text
using text editing commands. For example, you can type in data for a
report and then rearrange sections, duplicate information, substitute
phrases, or format text. You can use text editors to create and modify
source files for programming languages (such as DEC C for OpenVMS or
VAX BASIC) or text formatters (such as VAX DOCUMENT or DIGITAL Standard
Runoff). The operating system supports several text editors.
Chapter 8 describes how to use EVE, and Chapter 9 describes how
to use EDT.
1.6.4 DIGITAL Standard Runoff (DSR)
DIGITAL Standard Runoff (DSR) is a text formatter that processes source files into formatted text and intermediate files, and creates tables of contents and indexes. You use a text editor to create a source file, to which you should give the file type .RNO. This file contains text, DSR formatting commands, flags (special instruction characters you insert), and control characters.
Chapter 10 describes how to use DSR and lists DSR commands.
1.6.5 The Sort/Merge Utility
The OpenVMS Sort/Merge (SORT/MERGE) utility can be invoked in two ways: by using the SORT command or by using the MERGE command. When you invoke the Sort/Merge utility with the DCL command SORT, it sorts records from one or more input files, according to the fields you select, and generates one reordered output file. You can use the Sort/Merge utility to reorder records in a file (or files) so that they are in alphabetic or numeric order and either ascending or descending order.
When you invoke the Sort/Merge utility with the DCL command MERGE, it combines up to 10 previously sorted files into one ordered output file.
For information about using the Sort/Merge utility, see Chapter 11.
1.7 Devices
The following sections provide an overview of devices you can use in an
OpenVMS environment.
1.7.1 Mass Storage Devices
Mass storage devices, such as disks and magnetic
tapes, save the contents of files on a magnetic medium. Files
saved this way can be accessed, updated, modified, or reused at any
time.
1.7.2 Record Oriented Devices
Record-oriented devices, such as terminals, printers,
mailboxes, and card readers read and write only
single physical units of data at a time and do not provide online
storage of the data. (Printers and card readers are also called
unit-record devices.)
1.7.3 Disks and Magnetic Tapes
The files you commonly access are stored on disks or magnetic tapes.
Your user file directory (UFD) and your default directory with all your
files and subdirectories are located on a disk. You can use a file
specification that contains directory information only if the file is
located on a disk. Magnetic tapes do not have directory structures. To
obtain a file stored on tape, use a file specification that contains
only file information.
1.7.4 For Additional Information
A logical name is a name equated to an equivalence string or to a list
of equivalence strings. When you define a logical name, you equate one
character string to an equivalence string, which
is usually a full or partial file specification, another logical name,
or any other character string. Once you equate a logical name to one or
more equivalence strings, you can use the logical name to refer to
those equivalence strings. For example, you might assign a logical name
to your default disk and directory. Logical names serve two
main functions: they increase readability and file independence.
1.8.1 Readability
You can define commonly used files, directories, and devices with
short, meaningful logical names. Such names are easier to remember and
type than the full file specifications. You can define names that you
use frequently in your login command procedure. A system manager can
define names that most users on your system use frequently in the
site-specific system startup command procedure.
1.8.2 File Independence
You can use logical names to keep your programs and command procedures
independent of physical file specifications. For example, if a command
procedure references the logical name ACCOUNTS, you can equate ACCOUNTS
to any file on any disk before executing
1.8.3 For Additional Information
Chapter 13 contains information about logical name tables and
describes how to use logical names.
1.9 Symbols
Symbols are names that represent numeric, character, or logical values.
When you use a symbol in a DCL command line, DCL uses the value you
assign to the symbol. By defining a symbol as a command line, you can
execute the command by typing only the symbol name.
1.9.1 When to Use Symbols
Entering DCL command lines that include parameters, multiple qualifiers, and values can make for much typing and can be time-consuming. To simplify your interaction with DCL and to save time, you can establish symbols to use in place of command names and entire command strings you type frequently.
You can also use symbols in command procedures to collect, store, and
manipulate certain types of data.
1.9.2 For Additional Information
Chapter 14 describes how to use symbols in DCL commands and command
procedures.
1.10 Command Procedures
A command procedure is a file that contains a series of DCL
commands. Some simple command procedures might contain only one or two
DCL commands; complex command procedures can function as sophisticated
computer programs. When a command procedure is executed, the DCL
interpreter reads the file and executes the commands it contains.
1.10.1 System Login Command Procedures
If your system manager has set up a system login command
procedure, it is executed when you log in. A system login command
procedure lets your system manager ensure that certain commands are
always executed when you and other users on the system log in.
1.10.2 Personal Login Command Procedures
After executing the system login command procedure, the system executes
your personal login command procedure, if one exists. Your personal
login command procedure lets you customize your computing environment.
The commands contained in it are executed every time you log in. When
you log in, the system automatically executes up to two login command
procedures (the systemwide login command procedure and your own login
command procedure, if it exists).
1.10.3 Creating Login Command Procedures
The person who sets up your account might have placed a login command
procedure in your top-level directory. If a login command procedure is
not in your top-level directory, you can create one yourself, name it
LOGIN.COM and place it in your top-level directory. Unless your system
manager tells you otherwise, the LOGIN.COM file that you create will be
executed when you log in. A sample personal login command procedure is
included in Chapter 15.
1.10.4 For Additional Information
Appendix C contains several complete command procedures.
1.11 Lexical Functions
Lexical functions return information to a command line or command
procedure. The information returned can be about your process, the
system, files and devices, logical names, strings, or data types.
Lexical functions are identified by the prefix F$.
1.11.1 Usage
You can use lexical functions in any context in which you normally use
symbols or expressions. In command procedures, you can use lexical
functions to translate logical names, to perform character string
manipulations, and to determine the current processing mode of the
procedure.
1.11.2 For Additional Information
Chapter 17 describes how to use lexical functions to obtain and
manipulate information within a command procedure.
1.12 Processes and Programs
A process can be a detached process (a process that is independent of other processes) or a subprocess (a process that is dependent on another process for its existence and resources). Your main process, also called your parent process, is a detached process.
Chapter 18 describes how to use processes to perform computing tasks.
A program, also called an image or an executable
image, is a file that contains instructions and data in
machine-readable format. Some programs are associated with and invoked
by a DCL command. For example, when you type the DCL command COPY, the
system executes the program SYS$SYSTEM:COPY.EXE. Some programs are
invoked by entering the DCL command RUN followed by the program name.
1.12.1 User Authorization Files (UAFs)
The system obtains the characteristics that are unique to your process
from the user authorization file (UAF). The UAF lists those
users permitted to access the system and defines the characteristics
for each user's process. The system manager usually maintains the UAF.
It is within your process that the system executes your programs (also
called images or executable images) one at a time.
1.12.2 Creating Image Files
Image files can be supplied by the operating system or by you and usually have the other window file type .EXE. You cannot examine an image file with the DCL commands TYPE, PRINT, or EDIT because image files do not consist of ASCII characters. (Text files contain ASCII characters, which are a standard method of representing the alphabet, punctuation marks, numerals, and other special symbols.)
Chapter 18 contains more information about using programs.
1.13 System Security
Each system site has unique security requirements. For this reason,
every site should have a system security policy that outlines physical
and software security requirements for system managers and
users. The OpenVMS Guide to System Security describes the security features available with
the operating system and the tasks that system managers can perform to
maintain account and system security.
1.13.1 Protected Objects
To ensure system security, the OpenVMS operating system controls both
access to the system and access to any object that contains shareable
information. These objects, such as devices, volumes, logical name
tables, files, and queues, are known as protected objects.
All protected objects list a set of access requirements that specify
who has a right to access the object in a given manner.
1.13.2 For Additional Information
This chapter describes the following basic information that you need to know to interact with the OpenVMS operating system:
The way you log in and log out of the OpenVMS operating system depends
on how the system is set up at your site. This section provides a
general description of logging in to and out of the operating system.
Check with your system manager for the procedures specific to your site.
2.1.2 References
You need two pieces of information to log in to the system: a user name and a password. Your system manager usually sets up accounts and gives you a user name and initial password (see Section 2.3.2).
The following sections describe the login procedure.
2.2.1 How to Log In
To log in to the system, use the following procedure:
| Step | Task |
|---|---|
| 1 | Make sure your terminal is plugged in and the power is turned on. |
| 2 |
Press the Return key to signal the system that you want to log in. You
might need to press Return several times.
The system displays a prompt for your user name: Username:
|
| 3 |
Enter your user name and press Return. You have approximately 30
seconds to do this; otherwise, the system "times out." If a
timeout occurs, you must start the login procedure again.
The system displays your user name on the screen as you type it. For example: Username: CASEY
[Return]
The system prompts you for your password: Password:
|
| 4 |
Enter your password and press Return.
The system does not display your password, which is sometimes referred to as "no echo." |
| 5 | Depending on how your system manager has set up your account, you might be required to enter a second password or to use an automatically generated password (see Section 2.3.5). |
If your login is successful, the system displays a dollar sign ($) in
the left margin of your screen. The dollar sign is the default DCL
prompt; it indicates that the system is ready to use.
2.2.3 Example
The following example shows a successful login:
[Return]
Username: CASEY [Return]
Password: [Return]
Welcome to OpenVMS on node MARS
Last interactive login on Friday, 11-DEC-1996 08:41
Last non-interactive login on Thursday, 10-DEC-1996 11:05
$
If you make a mistake entering your user name or password or if your
password has expired, the system displays the message User
authorization failure and you are not logged in. If you make a
mistake, press Return and try again. If your password has expired, you
need to change your password; the system will automatically display the
Set Password: prompt. See Section 2.7 for information on changing
your password in this instance. If you have any other problems logging
in, get help from the person who set up your account.
2.3 Choosing Passwords for Your Account
To choose a secure password, use the following guidelines:
Your system manager or security administrator may set up additional
restrictions, for example, not allowing passwords with fewer than 10
characters or not allowing repeats of passwords.
2.3.1 Secure and High-Risk Passwords
The following table provides examples of secure passwords and high-risk passwords (words that others might easily guess):
| Secure Passwords | High-Risk Passwords |
|---|---|
|
Nonsense syllables:
aladaskgam eojfuvcue joxtyois |
Words with a strong personal association:
your name the name of a loved one the name of your pet the name of your town the name of your automobile |
|
A mixed string:
492_weid $924spa zu_$rags |
A work-related term:
your company name a special project your work group name |
Typically, when you learn that an account has been created for you on the system, you are told whether a user password is required. If user passwords are in effect, your system manager will usually assign a specific password for your first login. This password has been placed in the system user authorization file (UAF) with other information about how your account can be used.
It is inadvisable to have passwords that others could easily guess. Ask the person creating the account for you to specify a password that is difficult to guess. If you have no control over the password you are given, you might be given a password that is the same as your first name. If so, change it immediately after you log in. (The use of first or last names as passwords is a practice so well known that it is undesirable from a security standpoint.)
At the time your account is created, you should also be told a minimum
length for your password and whether you can choose your new password
or whether the system generates the password for you.
2.3.3 Changing Your Initial Password
Log in to your account soon after it is created to change your
password. If there is a time lapse from the moment your account is
created until your first login, other users might log in to your
account successfully, gaining a chance to damage the system. Similarly,
if you neglect to change the password or are unable to do so, the
system remains vulnerable. Possible damage depends largely on what
other security measures are in effect.
2.3.4 Restrictions on Passwords
The system screens passwords for acceptability, as follows:
The system rejects any passwords that it finds in a system dictionary,
that you have used before, and that are shorter than the minimum
password length specified in your UAF.
2.3.5 Types of Passwords
There are several types of passwords recognized by the OpenVMS operating system:
Your security administrator will tell you if you must specify a system
password to log in to one or more of the terminals designated for your
use. Ask your security administrator for the current system password,
how often it changes, and how to obtain the new system password when it
does change.
2.3.7 How to Enter a System Password
To specify a system password, do the following:
| Step | Task |
|---|---|
| 1 |
Press the Return key until the terminal responds with the recognition
character, which is commonly a bell.
[Return]
|
| 2 |
Enter the system password and press Return:
[Return]
There is no prompt and the system does not display the characters you type. If you fail to specify the correct system password, the system does not notify you. (Initially, you might think the system is malfunctioning unless you know that a system password is required at that terminal.) If you do not receive a response from the system, assume that you have entered the wrong password and try again. |
| 3 |
When you enter the correct system password, you receive the system
announcement message, if there is one, followed by the Username:
prompt. For example:
MAPLE - A member of the Forest Cluster
|
Your security administrator decides whether to require the use of secondary passwords for your account at the time your account is created. When your account requires primary and secondary passwords, you need two passwords to log in. Minimum password length, which the security administrator specifies in your UAF, applies to both passwords.
As with a single password login, the system allots a limited amount of
time for the entire login. If you do not enter a secondary password in
time, the login period expires.
2.3.9 Example
The following example shows a login that requires primary and secondary passwords:
WILLOW - A member of the Forest Cluster
Welcome to OpenVMS on node WILLOW
Username: RWOODS
Password: [Return]
Password: [Return]
Last interactive login on Friday, 11-DEC-1996 10:22
$
Four types of user accounts are available on OpenVMS systems:
When you log in from a terminal that is directly connected to a
computer, the OpenVMS system displays informational system messages.
2.4.1 Example: Local Login Messages
WILLOW - A member of the Forest Cluster (1)
Unlawful Access is Prohibited
Username: RWOODS
Password:
You have the following disconnected process: (2)
Terminal Process name Image name
VTA52: RWOODS (none)
Connect to above listed process [YES]: NO
Welcome to OpenVMS on node WILLOW (3)
Last interactive login on Wednesday, 11-DEC-1996 10:20 (4)
Last non-interactive login on Monday, 30-NOV-1996 17:39 (5)
2 failures since last successful login (6)
You have 1 new mail message. (7)
$
6489P001.HTM OSSG Documentation 22-NOV-1996 13:16:31.87
Copyright © Digital Equipment Corporation 1996. All Rights Reserved.